TPO是我们常用的托福模考工具，对我们的备考很有价值，下面我给大家带来托福阅读TPO16(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:Trade and the Ancient Middle East。

托福阅读原文

Trade was the mainstay of the urban economy in the Middle East, as caravans negotiated the surrounding desert, restricted only by access to water and by mountain ranges. This has been so since ancient times, partly due to the geology of the area, which is mostly limestone and sandstone, with few deposits of metallic ore and other useful materials Ancient demands for obsidian (a black volcanic rock useful for making mirrors and tools) led to trade with Armenia to the north, while jade for cutting tools was brought from Turkistan, and the precious stone lapis lazuli was imported from Afghanistan. One can trace such expeditions back to ancient Sumeria, the earliest known Middle Eastern civilization. Records show merchant caravans and trading posts set up by the Sumerians in the surrounding mountains and deserts of Persia and Arabia, where they traded grain for raw materials, such as timber and stones, as well as for metals and gems.

Reliance on trade had several important consequences. Production was generally in the hands of skilled individual artisans doing piecework under the tutelage of a master who was also the shop owner. In these shops differences of rank were blurred as artisans and masters labored side by side in the same modest establishment, were usually members of the same guild and religious sect, lived in the same neighborhoods, and often had assumed (or real) kinship relationships. The worker was bound to the master by a mutual contract that either one could repudiate, and the relationship was conceptualized as one of partnership.

This mode of craft production favored the growth of self-governing and ideologically egalitarian craft guilds everywhere in the Middle Eastern city. These were essentially professional associations that provided for the mutual aid and protection of their members, and allowed for the maintenance of professional standards. The growth of independent guilds was furthered by the fact that surplus was not a result of domestic craft production but resulted primarily from international tradingthe government left working people to govern themselves, much as shepherds of tribal confederacies were left alone by their leaders. In the multiplicity of small-scale local egalitarian or quasi-egalitarian organizations for fellowship, worship, and production that flourished in this laissez-faire environment, individuals could interact with one another within a community of harmony and ideological equality, following their own popularly elected leaders and governing themselves by shared consensus while minimizing distinctions of wealth and power.

The mercantile economy was also characterized by a peculiar moral stance that is typical of people who live by trade—an attitude that is individualistic, calculating, risk taking, and adaptive to circumstances. As among tribespeople, personal relationships and a careful weighing of character have always been crucial in a mercantile economy with little regulation, where one's word is one's bond and where informal ties of trust cement together an international trade network. Nor have merchants and artisans ever had much tolerance for aristocratic professions of moral superiority, favoring instead an egalitarian ethic of the open market, where steady hard work, the loyalty of one's fellows, and ntrepreneurial skill make all the difference. And, like the pastoralists, Middle Eastern merchants and artisans unhappy with their environment could simply pack up and leave for greener pastures—an act of self-assertion wholly impossible in most other civilizations throughout history.

Dependence on long-distance trade also meant that the great empires of the Middle East were built both literally and figuratively on shifting sand. The central state, though often very rich and very populous, was intrinsically fragile, since the development of new international trade routes could undermine the monetary base and erode state power, as occurred when European seafarers circumvented Middle Eastern merchants after Vasco da Gama's voyage around Africa in the late fifteenth century opened up a southern route. The ecology of the region also permitted armed predators to prowl the surrounding barrens, which were almost impossible for a state to control. Peripheral peoples therefore had a great advantage in their dealings with the center, making government authority insecure and anxious.

托福阅读试题

1.According to paragraph 1, why has trade been so important throughout the history of the Middle East

A.The rare and valuable metals and stones found in Middle Eastern deserts have always been in high demand in surrounding areas.

B.Growing conditions throughout the Middle East are generally poor, forcing Middle Eastern people to depend on imported grain.

C.Many useful and decorative raw materials cannot be found naturally in the Middle East but are available from neighboring regions.

D.Frequent travel, due to limited water supplies in the Middle East, created many opportunities for trade with neighboring societies.

2.The word “repudiate” in the passage (paragraph 2) is closest in meaning to

A.respect

B.reject

C.review

D.revise

3.According to paragraph 2, how did Middle Eastern shop owners treat their workers?

A.Workers were ranked according to their skill level, with the most-experienced artisans becoming partial owners of the shop.

B.Shop owners treated different workers differently depending on how much the workers had in common with their masters.

C.Workers were bound to their masters by unbreakable contracts that strictly defined the terms of their partnership.

D.The shop owner worked alongside the workers and often considered them partner and members of the family.

4.The author includes the information that surplus was not a result of domestic craft production but resulted primarily from international trading (in passage 3) in order to

A.support the claim that the mode of production made possible by the craft guilds w very good for trade

B.contrast the economic base of the city government with that of the tribal confederacies

C.provide a reason why the government allowed the guilds to be self-controlled

D.suggest that the government was missing out on a valuable opportunity to tax the guilds

5.According to paragraph 3, all of the following are true of the Middle Eastern craft guilds EXCEPT:

A.The guilds were created to support workers and to uphold principles of high-quality craft production.

B.Each guild was very large and included members from a broad geographic area.

C.The leaders of the guilds were chosen by popular vote.

D.All guild members were treated as equals.

6.The word “consensus” in the passage (paragraph 3) is closest in meaning to

A.authority

B.responsibility

C.custom

D.agreement

7.According to paragraph 4, which of the following was NOT necessary for success in themercantile economy?

A.Good business sense

B.Reliable associates

C.Family wealth

D.Constant effort

8.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 4? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

A.Tribes people were comfortable forming personal relationships with merchants, who, like them, were bound by their promises to one another.

B.Because trade was not formally regulated, merchants were careful about whom they trusted and often conducted business with people they knew personally.

C.While trade among merchants relied somewhat on regulation, among tribes people trade was based on personal relationships and careful character evaluation.

D.Because tribes people were bound only by their promises to one another, personal relationships were formed only after careful weighing of character.

9.The word “ethic” in the passage (paragraph 4) is closest in meaning to

A.set of moral principles

B.division of labor

C.economic system

D.test of character

10.According to paragraph 4, what choice did Middle Eastern merchants and artisans have that many other people have not had?

A.If they were unhappy in the mercantile environment, they could draw on personal connections to find a different kind of work.

B.They were allowed to assert their opinions without having to listen to aristocratic professions of moral superiority.

C.Following the example of the pastoralists, they could demand, and receive, better working conditions.

D.If they didn't like their environment, they could move somewhere else.

11.The word “intrinsically” in the passage (paragraph 5) is closest in meaning to

A.fundamentally

B.surprisingly

C.consequently

D.particularly

12.In paragraph 5, why does the author mention the new trade route opened up by Vasco da Gama's fifteenth century voyage around Africa?

A.To provide evidence that European seafarers took every opportunity to bypass Middle Eastern merchants

B.To present an instance in which Middle Eastern states lost money and power because of their reliance on long-distance trade

C.To argue this new route became necessary when European seafarers wanted to avoid Middle Eastern states whose central power had begun to erode

D.To explain how da Gama helped European traders avoid the dangerous predators prowling the areas surrounding Middle Eastern cities

13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? For one thing, it created a demand for finished goods to be sold both locally and abroad.

Paragraph2: Reliance on trade had several important consequences. ■【A】Production was generally in the hands of skilled individual artisans doing piecework under the tutelage of a master who was also the shop owner. ■【B】In these shops differences of rank were blurred as artisans and masters labored side by side in the same modest establishment, were usually members of the same guild and religious sect, lived in the same neighborhoods, and often had assumed (or real) kinship relationships. ■【C】The worker was bound to the master by a mutual contract that either one could repudiate, and the relationship was conceptualized as one of partnership. ■【D】

14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

Since ancient times. reliance on trade has shaped the culture and organizational structure of Middle Eastern societies.

A.Persian and Arabian merchants traveled great distances to sell their finished goods at the marketplaces of ancient Sumeria.

B.Revenue from trade was unevenly distributed, causing Middle Eastern societies to be characterized by growing distinctions in wealth and power.

C.Qualities that were valued in the mercantile economy included individualism, hard work, loyalty, and the willingness to take risks.

D.As production increased, centralized control over production also increased, leading in turn to more-centralized control over fellowship and worship.

E.Crafts were produced by skilled artisans working in close, egalitarian relationships with their masters and other fellow guild members.

F.The stability of Middle Eastern governments was threatened by their lack of control over international trade patterns and over their own peripheral territories.

托福 阅读答案

1.问trade为什么主要，这段第一句就说是mainstay，第二句就给出了原因，说他们没有这个没有那个，所以答案是C。A说中东有material，明显与原文说反B的中东很穷和D的frequent travel原文都没说。

2.repudiate与……断绝关系，驳斥，所以reject正确。原句说师徒之间是一种契约关系，这个契约任意一方都可以怎么样，下一句又说是一种伙伴关系，也就是没有强制性，所以答案是任何一方都可以撕毁，所以答案是reject。respect和review都不靠谱revise单纯的改变也不是作者的意思。

3.以shop owners做关键词定位至第二句，但第二句没有回答问题，所以往后看，后一句说老板和工人之间的界限被blur模糊了，而且他们同吃同住一起工作，所以答案是D。A的workers rank原文没说B说对不同工人态度不同，与原文相反C的unbreakable contract与最后一句相反。

4.修辞目的题，先看修辞点所在 句子 ，只是一个例子，放弃往前看，说有行业协会互助互惠，但这明显也还是一个例子，所以看本段中心句，说这种生产方式倾向于促进自律平等的同业协会的发展，所以答案是C。

5.EXCEPT题，排除法。A的support workers和uphold principles做关键词定位至第二句，原文的mutual aid and protection等于support workers，maintaneance of professional standards等于uphold principles，A正确，不选B的geographic area原文没有对应点，错，选C的vote做关键词定位至最后一句，正确，不选D的equals做关键词定位至最后一句，正确，不选。

6.consensus合约，同意，协定，所以D的agreement正确。原句说人与人之间的关系非常和谐，他们听他们领导的话，通过什么实现自律并尽量减小贫富差距，减小差距就是为了求得某种一致，所以答案是agreement。A权威，B责任，C习惯，都不靠谱。

7.EXCEPT题，排除法。A与倒数第二句的entrepreneurial skill同义替换，正确，不选B与倒数第二句的loyalty of one’s fellow同义替换，正确，不选C在原文中无对应点，错，选D与倒数第二句的steady hard work同义替换，正确，不选。

8.原句的结构是在什么什么人当中，什么和什么很重要，在什么什么环境下。所以B正确。A混淆原文概念，原文说在当时的环境下只能靠promise形成商业网络，人们和认识的人做生意，不是人们靠promise做生意C错，原文说没有regulation，C说反D错，因为only原文从来没说过。

9.ethic道德规范，伦理，所以A正确。原文说商人和工匠们不能忍受moral superiority，更喜欢open market的什么，既然不喜欢moral superiority，那么他们喜欢的东西也应该跟道德有关，所以答案是A，而B劳力分工C经济体系和D性格测试完全不靠谱。

10.以many other people做关键词定位至最后一句，说如果不满意当地的商业环境，中东商人会像游牧民族一样迁移到其他地方，这是其他人做不到的，所以答案是D。

11.intrinsically本质的，内部的，固有的，所以答案A正确。原句说尽管中部的国家很富裕而且人口稠密，但他们是怎么样脆弱的，由于新的国际贸易路线可以决定金融资本所在的地方，并且能够侵蚀国家的力量，都能侵蚀了，所以应该是脆弱的，但前文又说人口密集并且富裕，所以这些都是表象，所以答案是A的fundamentallly基础B吃惊C结果D特别都没反应这种内外的差别，所以都不对。

12.修辞目的题，先把本句读清楚，说新的国际贸易路线可以决定金融资本所在的地方，并且能够侵蚀国家的力量，接着就说就像达伽马发现了新航路之后欧洲人绕过了中东，所以说达伽马的事儿是为了证明航线的发现能够削弱国家的力量，所以答案是B。

13.两个过渡点，连词for one thing和名词finished goods，既然是for one thing，就应该放在比较靠前的位置上，所以A或者B有可能，而放在A正好对应之前的several important consequences而且finished goods与原文当中的production对应，所以A正确。

14.Persian选项是原文第一段中的一个细节，不选Revenue选项与原文第三段最后一句说反，是贫富差距缩小，不是扩大，不选Qualities选项对应第四段，正确As选项与原文第三段第一句相反，不选Crafts选项对应原文第二段和第三段的最后一句，正确The stability选项对应原文第五段第一句，正确。

托福阅读译文

自从中东地区的商旅们成功跨越周围的戈壁，只有水路和山峦还是障碍时，贸易就成为了中东地区城市经济的主要支柱。这种情况(贸易是主要支柱)从古至今都是如此，一部分原因是中东地区的地质环境——多为沙石和石灰岩，金属矿藏和 其它 有用材料很少。古代对黑曜石(一种火山岩，可以用来制作镜子和工具)的需求引发了(中东地区)与北方的亚美尼亚之间的贸易用作切削工具的玉石从土耳其斯坦购买而稀有贵重的琉璃青金石是从阿富汗地区进口。探险活动最早可以追溯至古苏美尔——已知最早的中东文明。记录显示商队和贸易站由古苏美尔人在周围山区及古波斯和阿拉伯的沙漠地区建立。

过于依赖贸易造成了一些重大影响。生产工作一般在师傅也是店主的监视下，由熟练的工匠计件完成。在这些店铺中，阶级差异并不明显，因为工匠和店主同在一个相对舒适的环境中共事，通常有着相同的宗教信仰，而且又是街坊邻里，彼此之间还很有可能(没准真的)是亲戚关系。工人和店主双方具有劳务关系，任一方都有权终止，这是合作关系中的一种。

这种生产模式有助于自主管理制度的发展，在中东城市里意识形态上秉持人人平等的手工行会比比皆是。他们实质上是专门提供互助且保护组织成员的协会组织，同时注重维持行业标准。独立行会不断增加，是因为剩余价值的产生并非由于国内生产，而是主要来自于国际间的贸易活动。政府允许劳动人民自主管理，这和部落首领让牧羊者们离群索居一样。在当地，团体、信仰以及生产方面的小型平等主义团体或类似平等主义的组织在这种自由放任的环境里遍地开花，和谐平等的团体中，成员之间相互影响，追随着他们自己选举的领导人，在缩小财富和权力差距的同时通过分享意见进行自我管理。

商品经济也通过靠贸易为生的商人所秉持的特定道德立场表现出来。他们具有独立自主、精于计算、敢于冒险和随遇而安的优秀品质。在部落成员之间，人际关系和谨言慎行的品质在监管不严的商品经济中至关重要,商品经济里人们出口成契，诚信基础上的非正式联系形成了一个国际贸易网络。从没有商人和工匠对贵族职业的道德优越感如此宽容，这很好地促进了开放市场中的平等主义，人们辛勤工作，忠诚跟随，具备企业家精神非常重要。而且，这和畜牧文明类似，中东的商人和工匠们若对自己所处的环境不满意，简单收拾一下就可迁移到一个更加丰茂的牧场——纵观历史，如此随性而为的行为在其他多数文明中是无法想象的。

对远距离贸易的依赖也意味着伟大的中东帝国得以建立在这片飘忽不定却又无比真实的沙土之中。帝国中部尽管非常富足繁盛，但本质上脆弱不堪，因为新的国际贸易线路的出现会动摇经济基础并腐蚀国家权力。就在15世纪晚期达伽马绕过非洲开辟南部航线以后，欧洲的水手们便绕过中东商人改走南部航线了。该地区的生态环境也允许武装“捕食者”在周围的荒漠潜行，几乎很难被帝国控制。外围的人借此得到一个应对中央帝国的绝好机会，这让政府惴惴不安。

苏美尔人(也译作苏默)，是历史上两河流域(底格里斯河和幼发拉底河中下游)早期的定居民族，他们所建立的苏美尔文明是整个美索不达米亚文明中最早，同时也是全世界最早产生的文明。

托福阅读TPO16(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:Trade and the Ancient Middle East相关 文章 ：

工伤标准和行业标准

企标和国标的区别如下：

1、颁布机关不同：国标由国家机构通过并公开发布的标准。行业标准是指没有推荐性国家标准、需要在全国一个行业范围内统一的技术要求。企业标准是对企业范围内需要协调、统一的技术要求、管理要求和工作要求所制定的标准。

2、权威性不同：国标一般是强制要求，最权威。如果企业标准高于行业标准或者国家标准，也可以执行所备案的企业标准。否则，按照这个顺序执行国家标准、行业标准、企业标准。

3、制定标准不同：国标、行标、企标允许同时存在，但前题条件是制订标准时，企标应优于(高于)行标，行标又优于(高于)国标。

国标和行标有什么区别？

一级伤残1. 日常生活完全不能自理，全靠别人帮助或采用专门设施，否则生命无法维持2. 意识消失3. 各种活动均受到限制而卧床4.完全丧失劳动能力。二级伤残1. 日常生活需要随时有人帮助2. 各种活动受限，仅限于床上或椅上的活动3. 不能工作4. 社会交往极度困难。三级伤残1. 不能完全独立生活，需经常有人监护2. 各种活动受限，仅限于室内的活动3. 明显职业受限4. 社会交往困难。四级伤残1. 日常生活能力严重受限，间或需要帮助2. 各种活动受限，仅限于居住范围内的活动3. 职业种类受限4. 社会交往严重受限。五级伤残1. 日常生活能力部分受限，偶尔需要监护2. 各种活动受限，仅限于就近的活动3. 需要显减轻工作4. 社会交往贫乏。六级伤残1. 日常生活能力部分受限，但能部分代偿，条件性需要帮助2. 各种活动降低3. 不能胜任原工作4. 社会交往狭窄。七级伤残1. 日常生活有关的活动能力严重受限2. 短暂活动不受限，长时间活动受限3. 工作时间需要明显缩短4. 社会交往降低。八级伤残1. 日常生活有关的活动能力部分受限2. 远距离流动受限3. 断续工作4. 社会交往受约束。九级伤残1. 日常活动能力大部分受限2. 工作和学习能力下降3. 社会交往能力大部分受限。十级伤残1. 日常活动能力部分受限2. 工作和学习能力有所下降3. 社会交往能力部分受限 《工伤保险条例》 第十四条 职工有下列情形之一的，应当认定为工伤：(一)在工作时间和工作场所内，因工作原因受到事故伤害的(二)工作时间前后在工作场所内，从事与工作有关的预备性或者收尾性工作受到事故伤害的(三)在工作时间和工作场所内，因履行工作职责受到暴力等意外伤害的(四)患职业病的(五)因工外出期间，由于工作原因受到伤害或者发生事故下落不明的(六)在上下班途中，受到非本人主要责任的交通事故或者城市轨道交通、客运轮渡、火车事故伤害的(七)法律、行政法规规定应当认定为工伤的其他情形。

1、定义不同

国标：国家标准分为强制性国家标准和推荐性国家标准。国务院标准化行政主管部门和国务院有关行政主管部门建立标准实施信息和评估机制，根据反馈和评估情况对国家标准进行复审，复审周期一般不超过5年。经过复审，对不适用经济社会发展需要和技术进步的标准应当及时修订或者废止。

行业标准是对没有国家标准而又需要在全国某个行业范围内统一的技术要求所制定的标准。

企业标准是在企业范围内需要协调、统一的技术要求、管理要求和工作要求所制定的标准，是企业组织生产、经营活动的依据。

2、服从顺序不同

行业标准不得与有关国家标准相抵触，企业标准需要服从国家标准和行业标准。

3、用途不同

国标：对保障人身健康和生命财产安全、国家安全、生态环境安全以及满足经济社会管理基本需求。

行标：定某行业内各项指标标准，维持该行业的运行稳定。

企标：企业生产的产品没有国家标准和行业标准的，应当制定企业标准，作为组织生产的依据。已有国家标准或者行业标准的，国家鼓励企业制定严于国家标准或者行业标准的企业标准，在企业内部适用。

4、分类不同

国标：按照标准化对象，通常把标准分为技术标准、管理标准和工作标准三大类。中国标准分为国家标准、行业标准、地方标准和企业标准。

行标：药品行业标准、兽药行业标准、农药行业标准、食品卫生行业标准；工农业产品及产品生产、储运和使用中的安全、卫生行业标准。

企标：企业生产的产品，没有国家标准、行业标准和地方标准的，制定的企业产品标准；提高产品质量和技术进步，制定的严于国家标准、行业标准或地方标准的企业产品标准；对国家标准、行业标准的选择或补充的标准；

5、制定主体不同

制性国家标准由国务院批准发布或授权发布。

行业标准由行业标准归口部门统一管理。

企业标准由企业制定，由企业法人代表或法人代表授权的主管领导批准、发布。

参考资料：

百度百科-国家标准

参考资料：

百度百科-行业标准

参考资料：

百度百科-企业标准

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